![]() ![]() Given the brain’s varied tumor types and well-defined anatomical compartments, what is suggested about how the optimal immunotherapy might vary with the tumor type or site? Given what is now known about the immune response to targets in the brain, how well can immunologic findings for the brain and other sites be cross-applied? Submission is open to all. As experience accumulates, it is important to consider its generality: How might the choice or interpretation of the immunotherapy vary with the tumor type or site? This Frontiers Topic emphasizes the brain’s place among other tumor sites. Brain-machine interfaces (BMIs) provide a promising information channel between the biological brain and external devices and are applied in building brain-to-device control.Tumor immunotherapy is steadily progressing, with different approaches emphasized for different tumors. Prior studies have explored the feasibility of establishing a brain-brain interface (BBI) across various brains via the combination of BMIs. However, using BBI to realize the efficient multidegree control of a living creature, such as a rat, to complete a navigation task in a complex environment has yet to be shown. ![]() In this study, we developed a BBI from the human brain to a rat implanted with microelectrodes (i.e., rat cyborg), which integrated electroencephalogram-based motor imagery and brain stimulation to realize human mind control of the rat’s continuous locomotion. Control instructions were transferred from continuous motor imagery decoding results with the proposed control models and were wirelessly sent to the rat cyborg through brain micro-electrical stimulation. The results showed that rat cyborgs could be smoothly and successfully navigated by the human mind to complete a navigation task in a complex maze. Our experiments indicated that the cooperation through transmitting multidimensional information between two brains by computer-assisted BBI is promising.ĭirect communication between brains has long been a dream for people, especially for those with difficulty in verbal or physical language. Brain-machine interfaces (BMIs) provide a promising information channel between the brain and external devices. As a potential human mind reading technology, many previous BMI studies have successfully decoded brain activity to control either virtual objects 1, 2, 3 or real devices 4, 5. On the other hand, BMIs can also be established in an inverse direction of information flow, where computer-generated information can be used to modulate the function of a specific brain region 6, 7, 8 or import tactile information back to the brain 9, 10, 11. The combination of different types of BMI systems can thus help to realize direct information exchange between two brains to form a new brain-brain interface (BBI). However, very few previous studies have explored BBIs across different brains 12. ![]() established a BBI to realize the real-time transfer of behaviorally meaningful sensorimotor information between the brains of two rats 13. While an encoder rat performed a sensorimotor task, samples of its cortical activity were transmitted to matching cortical areas of a “decoder” rat using intracortical micro-electrical stimulation (ICMS) on its somatosensory cortex. Guided solely by the information provided by the encoder rat’s brain, the decoder rat learned to make similar behavioral selections. BBIs between humans have also been preliminary explored. One example of a BBI between humans detected motor intention with EEG signals recorded from one volunteer and transmitted this information over the internet to the motor cortex region of another volunteer by transcranial magnetic stimulation, which resulted in the direct information transmission from one human brain to another using noninvasive means 14. In addition to information transfer between two brains of the same type of organism, the BBI enables information to be transferred from a human brain to another organism’s brain. used steady-state visual evoked potential (SSVEP)-based BMI to extract human intention and sent it to an anesthetized rat using transcranial focused ultrasound stimulation on its brain, thereby controlling the tail movement of the anesthetized rat by the human brain 15. In a very recent work, a BBI was developed to implement motion control of a cyborg cockroach by combining a human’s SSVEP BMI and electrical nerve stimulation on the cockroach’s antennas 16. The cyborg cockroach could then be navigated by the human brain to complete walking along an S-shaped track.Īlthough the feasibility of BBIs has been preliminarily proven, it is still a big challenge to build an efficient BBI for the multidegree control for the continuous locomotion of a mammal in a complex environment. ![]()
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